Kamis, 04 November 2010

Horseshoe

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Modern horseshoes are most commonly made of steel and nailed into the hoof wall.

A variety of horseshoes, including aluminium racing plates (light coloured) and shoes used on cattle in lower right.

A horseshoe is a U-shaped item made of metal or of modern synthetic materials, nailed or glued to the hooves of horses and some other draught animals. Like a shoe on a human, it is used to protect the animal's feet from wear and tear. Professional horseshoers, also called farriers or blacksmiths (more commonly used in the UK), attach horseshoes on the palmar surface of the hoof, usually by nailing through the insensitive hoof wall, which is anatomically similar to the human toenail, though much larger and thicker.
Horseshoes are available in a wide variety of materials and styles, developed for different types of horses and the work they do. The most common materials are steel and aluminum, but specialized shoes may include use of rubber, plastic, magnesium, titanium, or copper Steel tends to be preferred in sports where a strong, long-wearing shoe is needed, such as polo, eventing, show jumping, and western riding events. Aluminum shoes are lighter, making them common in horse racing, where a lighter shoe is desired; and often facilitate certain types of desired movement, and so are favored in the discipline of dressage. Some horseshoes have "caulkins", "caulks", or "calks": protrusions at the toe and/or heels of the shoe, to provide additional traction.
When kept as a talisman, a horseshoe is said to bring good luck. Many believe that to hang it with the ends pointing upwards is good luck as it acts as a storage container of sorts for any good luck that happens to be floating by, whereas to hang it with the ends pointing down, is bad luck as all the good luck will fall out. Others believe that the shoe should be hung the other way, as it will then release its luck to the people around it.^[3] A stylized variation of the horseshoe is used for a popular throwing game, horseshoes.

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[edit] History

A hipposandal, a predecessor to the horseshoe

Since the early history of domestication of the horse, it was noted that working animals were exposed to many conditions that created breakage or excessive hoof wear. Ancient people recognized the need for the walls (and sometimes the sole) of domestic horses' hooves to have additional protection over and above any natural hardness. An early form of hoof protection was seen in ancient Asia, where horses' hooves were wrapped in rawhide, leather or other materials for both therapeutic purposes and protection from wear. The nailed shoe was a relatively late invention.
The ancient Greek horse trainer Xenophon mentioned nothing about horseshoes in his treatise on the care of military cavalry, nor did the Digesta Artis Veterinariae by Vegetius Renatus, written in AD 480, mention nailed-on shoes, though he accurately enumerated everything connected with an army forge in the time. There are early literary references in the Koran, circa AD 632, to "war-horses… which strike fire, by dashing their hoofs against the stones…" which, if taken literally, is an effect that could be obtained only by shod horses, as barefoot hooves striking stone do not create sparks.
Because iron was a valuable commodity, and any worn out items were generally melted down and reused, it is difficult to locate clear archaeological evidence of the earliest horseshoes. From archaeological finds in Great Britain, it appears that the Romans attempted to protect their horses' feet with a strap-on, solid-bottomed "hipposandal" that has a slight resemblance to the modern hoof boot,
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911),

Though the ancients were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses' hoofs to devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape of socks or sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes to the hoof does not appear to have been introduced earlier than the 2nd century B.C., and was not commonly known till the close of the 5th century A.D., or in regular use till the middle ages. The evidence for the earlier date depends on the doubtful interpretations of designs on coins, &c.

There is very little evidence of nailed-on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600, though there is speculation that the Gauls were the first to nail on metal horseshoes. The nailed iron horseshoe first appeared in the archaeological record in Europe about 5th century A.D. when a horseshoe, complete with nails, was found in the tomb of the Frankish King Childeric I at Tournai, Belgium The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to "crescent figured irons and their nails" in AD 910.

English horseshoes from the eleventh century to the nineteenth.

Around 1000 AD, cast bronze horseshoes with nail holes became common in Europe. Common was a design with a scalloped outer rim and six nail holes.The 13th and 14th centuries brought the widespread manufacturing of iron horseshoes By the time of the Crusades (1096–1270), horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources. In that period, due to the value of iron, horseshoes were even accepted in lieu of coin to pay taxes^.
By the 13th century, shoes were forged in large quantities and could be bought ready-made. Hot shoeing, the process of shaping a heated horseshoe immediately before placing it on the horse, became common in the 16th century. From the need for horseshoes, the craft of blacksmithing became "one of the great staple crafts of medieval and modern times and contributed to the development of metallurgy^. A treatise titled "No Foot, No Horse" was published in Great Britain in 1751^.
In 1835, the first U.S. patent for a horseshoe manufacturing machine capable of making up to sixty horseshoes per hour was issued to Henry Burden.

Reasons for use of horseshoes

A horseshoe maker/blacksmith in India.

Environmental changes linked to domestication

A hot horseshoe in a forge. The metal is softened so that it can be more precisely shaped to the horse's hoof.

Many changes brought about by domestication of the horse have led to a need for shoes for number of reasons. Overall in captivity, horses' hooves harden much less and are more vulnerable to injury. In the wild, a horse may travel up to 50 miles per day to obtain adequate forage. While horses in the wild covered large areas of terrain, they usually did so at relatively slow speeds, unless being chased by a predator. They also tended to live in arid, steppe climates. The consequence of slow but nonstop travel in a dry climate is that horse's feet are naturally worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state. The continual stimulation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard. However, in domestication, the ways horses are used differs from their natural environment. Domesticated horses were moved in large numbers from the arid steppes to colder and wetter areas. These softer and heavier soils soften the hooves and have made them prone to splitting, making hoof protection necessary. Consequently, it was in northern Europe that the nailed horseshoe arose in its modern form.
Domesticated horses are also subject to inconsistent movement between stabling and work, they must carry or pull additional weight, and in modern times they are often kept and worked on very soft footing, such as irrigated land, arena footing, or stall bedding. In some cases, management is also inadequate. The hooves of horses that are kept in stalls or small turnouts, even when cleaned adequately, are still exposed to more moisture than would be encountered in the wild, as well as to ammonia from urine. The hoof capsule is mostly made from keratin, a protein, and is weakened by this exposure, becoming even more fragile and soft. Wearing shoes does not prevent or reduce damage from moisture and ammonia exposure. Rather, they protect already weakened hooves. Further, without the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large and long unless trimmed regularly. Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles, and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking. A balanced diet with proper nutrition also is a factor. Without these precautions, cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot because of inadequately thick and hard sole material.

Physical stresses requiring horseshoes

Abnormal stress: Horses' hooves can become quite worn out when subjected to the added weight/stress of a human, pack loads, cart, or wagon.

These bar shoes are commonly used in corrective shoeing, to help support the heels.

Corrective shoeing: The shape, weight, and thickness of a horseshoe can significantly affect the horse's gait. Farriers trained in hot shoeing can make custom shoes to help horses with bone or musculature problems in their legs.
Traction: Traction devices such as borium for ice, horse shoe studs for muddy or slick conditions, calks, and rims are useful for performance horses such as eventers, show jumpers, polo ponies, and other horses that perform at high speeds, over changing terrain, or in less-than-ideal footing^.
Gait Manipulation: Some breeds such as the Saddlebred, Tennessee Walking Horse, and other gaited horses are judged on their high-stepping movement. Special shoeing can help enhance their natural movement.

[edit] Horseshoeing theories and debates

Horseshoes have always been viewed as an aid to assist horses' hooves when subjected to the various unnatural conditions brought about by domestication, whether due to work conditions or stabling and management. Countless generations of domestic horses bred for size, color, speed, and many other traits with little regard for hoof quality and soundness make some breeds more dependent on horseshoes than feral horses such as mustangs, which develop strong hooves as a matter of natural selection.

A hoof boot can be used in place of a horseshoe or as a temporary substitute for a thrown shoe

Nonetheless, domestic horses do not always require shoes. There is near-universal agreement among farriers that when possible, a barefoot hoof, at least for part of every year, is a healthy option for most horses. However, other farriers are equally adamant that horseshoes have their place and can help prevent excess or abnormal hoof wear and injury to the foot. Many farriers agree that some horses may even be able to go without shoes year-round, using temporary protection such as hoof boots for short-term use.
Recently, there has been a renewed debate over the traditional role of horseshoes. Observations of feral horses and barefoot domestic horses in natural boarding situations (including being kept on roomy pasture, not in stalls) have provided additional evidence that domesticated horses can grow hooves as healthy as those of feral horses and may not need shoes as often as many people think. Proponents of this idea, also known as the barefoot horse movement, argue that with proper care, horses may never need shoes at any time once they have been properly transitioned. Thus, the debate of when, where, why and whether to use horseshoes is a hot topic today.

Process of shoeing

Shoeing mistakes

Mistakes are sometimes made by even a skilled farrier, especially if the horse does not stand still. This may sometimes result in a nail coming too close to the sensitive part of the hoof (putting pressure on it), or a nail that is driven slightly into the sensitive hoof, called "quicking" or nail pricking. This occurs when a nail penetrates the wall and hits the sensitive internal structures of the foot. Quicking results in bleeding and pain and the horse may show signs of lameness or may become lame in following days. Whenever it happens, the farrier must remove the offending nail. Usually a horse that is quicked will react immediately, though some cases where the nail is close to sensitive structures may not cause immediate problems. These mistakes are made occasionally by anyone who shoes horses, and in most cases is not an indication that the farrier is unskilled. It happens most commonly when horses move around while being shod, but also may occur if the hoof wall is particularly thin (common in Thoroughbreds), or if the hoof wall is brittle or damaged. It may also occur with an inexperienced or unskilled horseshoer who misdrives a nail, uses a shoe that is too small, or has not fitted the shoe to the shape of the horse's hoof. Occasionally, manufacturing defects in nails or shoes may also cause a misdriven nail that quicks a horse.
However, the term "farrier" implies a professional horseshoer with skill, education, and training. Some people who shoe horses are untrained or unskilled, and likely to do more harm than good for the horse. People who do not understand the horse's foot will not trim the hoof correctly. This can cause serious problems for the animal, resulting in chronic lameness and damage to the hoof wall. Poor trimming will usually place the hoof at an incorrect angle, leave the foot laterally unbalanced and may cut too much off certain areas of the hoof wall, or trim too much of the frog or sole. Some horseshoers will rasp the hoof down to fit an improperly shaped or too-small size of shoe, which is damaging to the movement of the horse and can damage the hoof itself if trimmed or rasped too short. A poor horseshoer can also make mistakes in the shoeing process itself, not only quicking a horse, but also putting shoe on crooked, using the wrong type of shoe for the job at hand, shaping the shoe improperly, or setting it on too far forward or back.

Senin, 25 Oktober 2010

Shoe

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This article is about footwear. For other uses, see Shoe (disambiguation).

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Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2008)

Today the world's most widely available shoe: hundreds of used athletic shoes for sale in a public square, Fez, Morocco, 2007

A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort the human foot while doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration. The design of shoes has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Additionally fashion has often dictated many design elements, such as whether shoes have very high heels or flat ones. Contemporary footwear varies widely in style, complexity and cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a thin sole and simple strap. High fashion shoes may be made of very expensive materials in complex construction and sell for thousands of dollars a pair. Other shoes are for very specific purposes, such as boots specially designed for mountaineering or skiing.
Shoes have traditionally been made from leather, wood or canvas, but are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials.
Until recent years,^[when?] shoes were not worn by most of the world's population—largely because they could not afford them. Only with the advent of mass production, making shoes available very cheaply, has shoe-wearing become predominant.
The foot contains more bones than any other single part of the body. Though it has evolved over hundreds of thousands of years in relation to vastly varied terrain and climate conditions, the foot is still vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and hot ground, which shoes can protect against.

History

The oldest known leather shoe, about 5500 years old, Armenia.

Ancient Greek pair of terracotta boots. Early geometric period cremation burial of a woman, 900 BCE, Ancient Agora Museum, Athens

The earliest known shoes are sandals dating from about 8000 to 7000 BCE and found in Oregon, USA in 1938.^[1] The world's oldest leather shoe, made from a single piece of cowhide laced with a leather cord along seams at the front and back, was found in a cave in Armenia in 2008 and is believed to date to 3,500 BCE.^[2]^[3]^[4] Ötzi the Iceman's shoes, dating to 3,300 BCE, featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string net, which pulled tight around the foot.^[3] However, tanned leather, the material most commonly used for making shoes, does not normally last for thousands of years, so shoes were probably in use long before this. Physical anthropologist Erik Trinkaus believes he has found evidence that the use of shoes began in the period between about 40,000 and 26,000 years ago, based on the fact that the thickness of the bones of the toes (other than the big toe) decreased during this period, on the premise that wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth, resulting in shorter, thinner toes.^[5]^[6] The earliest designs were simple affairs, often mere "foot bags" of leather to protect the feet from rocks, debris, and cold. Since shoes use more leather than sandals, their use was more common in cold climates. By the Middle Ages, turn-shoes had been developed with toggled flaps or drawstrings to tighten the leather around the foot for a better fit. As Europe gained in wealth and power, fancy shoes became status symbols. Toes became long and pointed, often to ridiculous proportions. Artisans created unique footwear for rich patrons, and new styles developed. Eventually the modern shoe, with a sewn-on sole, was devised. Since the 17th century, most leather shoes have used a sewn-on sole. This remains the standard for finer-quality dress shoes today. Until around 1800, shoes were made without differentiation for the left or right foot. Such shoes are now referred to as "straights".^{[citation needed]} Only gradually did the modern foot-specific shoe become standard.
Since the mid-20th Century, advances in rubber, plastics, synthetic cloth, and industrial adhesives have allowed manufacturers to create shoes that stray considerably from traditional crafting techniques. Leather, which had been the primary material in earlier styles, has remained standard in expensive dress shoes, but athletic shoes often have little or no real leather. Soles, which were once laboriously hand-stitched on, are now more often machine stitched or simply glued on.

Parts

Sole

Gluing a new outsole to an athletic shoe

The bottom of a shoe is called the sole.

Insole

Outsole

The outsole is the layer in direct contact with the ground. Dress shoes often have leather or resin rubber outsoles; casual or work-oriented shoes have outsoles made of natural rubber or a synthetic material like Polyurethane. The outsole may comprise a single piece, or may be an assembly of separate pieces of different materials. Often the heel of the sole has a rubber plate for durability and traction, while the front is leather for style. Specialized shoes will often have modifications on this design: athletic or so called cleated shoes like soccer, rugby, baseball and golf shoes have spikes embedded in the outsole to grip the ground.

Midsole

The layer in between the outsole and the insole that is typically there for shock absorption. Some types of shoes, like running shoes, have another material for shock absorption, usually beneath the heel of the foot, where one puts the most pressure down. Different companies use different materials for the midsoles of their shoes. Some shoes may not have a midsole at all.

Heel

The bottom rear part of a shoe is the heel. Its function is to support the heel of the foot. They are often made of the same material as the sole of the shoe. This part can be high for fashion or to make the person look taller, or flat for a more practical and comfortable use.

Women's high heel pump

Vamp/upper

Every shoe has an upper part that helps hold the shoe onto the foot. In the simplest cases, such as sandals or flip-flops, this may be nothing more than a few straps for holding the sole in place. Closed footwear, such as boots, trainers and most men's shoes, will have a more complex upper. This part is often decorated or is made in a certain style to look attractive.

Lateral/medial

The outside part of the shoe is referred to as the lateral and the inside facing part of the shoe is the medial. This can be in reference to either the outsole or the vamp.

Accessories

Shoehorn: can be used to insert a foot into a shoe by keeping the shoe open and providing a smooth surface for the foot to slide upon.
Shoe tree: placed inside the shoe when user is not wearing it, to help maintain the shoe's shape.
Heel grip: used to prevent the shoe from slipping on the heel if the fit is not perfect
Foam tap: a small foam pad placed under the ball of the foot to push the foot up and back if the shoe is too loose.
Shoe polishing equipment:
- Shoe polish: a waxy material spread on shoes to improve appearance, glossiness, and provide protection.
- Shoe brush and polishing cloth: used to apply polish to shoes.
Overshoes or galoshes: a rubber covering placed over shoes for rain and snow protection.
(Orthopedic) shoe insert: insert of various materials for cushioning, improved fit, or reduced abrasion. These include padding and inner linings. Inserts may also be used to correct foot problems.
Shoe bag: a bag that protects shoes against damage when they are not being worn.
Shoe stretcher: a tool for making a shoe longer or wider or for reducing discomfort in areas of a shoe.
Snow shoe: a wooden or leather piece which increases the area of ground covered by the shoe.
Shoelaces: a system used to secure shoes.

Types

Dress and casual

Dress shoes are characterized by smooth and supple leather uppers, leather soles, and narrow sleek figure. Casual shoes are characterized by sturdy leather uppers, non-leather outsoles, and wide profile.
Some designs of dress shoes can be worn by either gender. The majority of dress shoes have an upper covering, commonly made of leather, enclosing most of the lower foot, but not covering the ankles. This upper part of the shoe is often made without apertures or openings, but may also be made with openings or even itself consist of a series of straps, e.g. an open toe featured in women's shoes. Shoes with uppers made high to cover the ankles are also available; a shoe with the upper rising above the ankle is usually considered a boot but certain styles may be referred to as high-topped shoes or high-tops. Usually, a high-topped shoe is secured by laces or zippers, although some styles have elastic inserts to ease slipping the shoe on.

Men's

This male dress shoe, known as a blucher, is distinguished by its open lacing.

Men's shoes can be categorized by how they are closed:

Oxfords (also referred as "Balmorals"): the vamp has a V-shaped slit to which the laces are attached; also known as "closed lacing". The word "Oxford" is sometimes used by American clothing companies to market shoes that are not Balmorals, such as Blüchers.
Blüchers (American), Derbys (British): the laces are tied to two pieces of leather independently attached to the vamp; also known as "open lacing".
Monk-straps: a buckle and strap instead of lacing
Slip-ons: There are no lacings or fastenings. The popular loafers are part of this category, as well as less popular styles, such as elastic-sided shoes.

Men's shoes can also be decorated in various ways:

Plain-toes: have a sleek appearance and no extra decorations on the vamp.
Cap-toes: has an extra layer of leather that "caps" the toe. This is possibly the most popular decoration.
Brogues (American: wing-tips): The toe of the shoe is covered with a perforated panel, the wing-tip, which extends down either side of the shoe. Brogues can be found in both balmoral and blucher styles.

Women's

Women's shoes on display in a shop window, 2005

There is a large variety of shoes available for women, in addition to most of the men's styles being more accepted as unisex. Some broad categories are:

High-heeled footwear is footwear that raises the heels, typically 2 inches (5 cm) or more above the toes, commonly worn by women for formal occasions or social outings. Variants include kitten heels (typically 1½-2 inches high) and stilletto heels (with a very narrow heel post) and wedge heels (with a wedge-shaped sole rather than a heel post).

Sneaker boot or sneaker pump: a shoe that looks like an athletic shoe, but is equipped with a heel, making it a kind of novelty dress shoe.

Mules are shoes or slippers with no fitting around the heel (i.e. they are backless)

Slingbacks are shoes which are secured by a strap behind the heel, rather than over the top of the foot.

Ballet flats, known in the UK as ballerinas, ballet pumps or skimmers, are shoes with a very low heel and a relatively short vamp, exposing much of the instep. They are popular for warm-weather wear, and may be seen as more comfortable than shoes with a higher heel.

Court shoes, known in the US as pumps, are typically high-heeled, slip-on dress shoes.

Unisex

The flip-flop sandal, worn both by men and women

Clog
Platform shoe: shoe with very thick soles and heels
Moccasin: originated by Native Americans, a soft shoe without a heel and usually made of leather.
Sandals: open shoes consisting of a sole and various straps, leaving much of the foot exposed to air. They are thus popular for warm-weather wear, because they let the foot be cooler than a closed-toed shoe would.
Espadrilles are casual flat warm-weather shoes of a style which originated in the Pyrenees. They usually have a cotton or canvas upper and a flexible sole of rope or rubber. There are high-heeled versions for women.
Saddle shoe: leather shoe with a contrasting saddle-shaped band over the instep, typically white uppers with black "saddle".
Slip-on shoe: a dress or casual shoe without laces; often with tassels, buckles, or coin-holders (penny loafers).
Boat shoes, also known as "deck shoes": similar to a loafer, but more casual. Laces are usually simple leather with no frills. Typically made of leather and featuring a soft white sole to avoid marring or scratching a boat deck. The first boat shoe was invented in 1935 by Paul Sperry.
Boots: Long shoes (covering the ankle) frequently made of leather. Some are designed to be used in times of bad weather, or simply as an alternate style of casual or dress wear. Styles include rubber boots and snow boots, as well as work boots and hiking boots.
Slippers: For indoor use, commonly worn with pajamas.
Vibram FiveFingers, meant to simulate the "natural" experience of going barefoot, while protecting the foot
Sneakers or Canvas shoes

Athletic

Today the most popular shoe globally: the sports shoe adapted for everyday use

Men's and women's athletic shoes and special function shoes often have less difference between the sexes than in dress shoes. In many cases these shoes can be worn by either sex. Emphasis tends to be more on function than style.

Running shoes: very similar to above, with additional emphasis on cushioning.
Track spikes: lightweight; often with plastic or metal cleats
Cleat (shoe): a type of shoe featuring molded or removable studs. Usually worn while playing sports such as rugby, football, American football, or baseball.
Golf shoes: with "spikes" for better grip in grass and wet ground. Originally the spikes or "cleats" were made of metal but replaceable "soft spikes" made of synthetic plastic-like materials with prongs distributed radially around the edge of each spike are much more common today (and are required on many golf courses since they cause less damage to the greens).
Bowling shoes: intermediate style between ordinary dress shoes and athletic shoes. They have harder rubber soles/heels so as not to damage bowling alley floors. They are often rented or loaned at bowling alleys.
Climbing shoes: a shoe designed for rock climbing. They typically have a close fit, little if any padding, and a smooth sticky rubber sole with an extended rubber rand.
Hiking shoes or boots: usually have a high somewhat stiff upper with many lace eyelets, to provide ankle support on uneven terrain, with extra large traction on the sole.
Walking shoes: have a more flexible sole than the running shoe, lighter in weight than the hiking boot, may have air holes, may not be water proof.
Skating shoes: typically called skates. They have various attachments for skating on the bottom of the shoe portion.
Ski boot: a large, thick plastic boot specially designed for attachment to the ski.
Skate shoes: specifically designed for use in Skateboarding, the shoes are manufactured with flat soles as to allow a skateboarder to have better grip when riding a skateboard. They are very wide and have extra layers of padding to protect the skateboarders feet.
Cycling shoes are equipped with a metal or plastic cleat to interface with clipless pedals, as well as a stiff sole to maximize power transfer and support the foot.
Snowshoes are special shoes for walking in thick snow. In temperate climates, snowshoes are used for mostly recreational purposes in winter.
Wrestling shoes are light, flexible shoes that mimic bare feet while providing additional traction and protection.

Orthopedic

Orthopedic or "comfort" shoes are made with pedorthic and anatomically-correct comfort qualities, such as padded removable footbeds, wide toe boxes and arch support are made especially for those with problematic feet.

Dance

Pointe shoes are designed for ballet dancing. These have a toe box that is stiffened with glue and a hardened sole so the dancer can stand on the tips of their toes. They are secured by elastic straps and ribbons that are tied to the dancer's ankles.
Ballet shoes are soft, highly pliable shoes made of canvas or leather, with either continuous or two-part sole (also called split-sole). The sole is typically made of leather, with thicker material under the ball and heel of the foot, and thinner and thus more flexible material under the arch so that the foot can be pointed to its utmost. Ballet slippers are usually secured by elastics that cross over the top of the foot. They are most commonly pink, white, black, or pale tan, although they may be made in specialty colours such as red or blue.
Ghillies are soft shoes that are used in Irish dance, Scottish country dance, and highland dance.
Jazz shoes typically have a two-part, rubberized sole (also called split-sole) to provide both flexibility and traction, and a low (one inch or shorter) heel. They are secured to the foot by laces or elastic inserts.
Tango and Flamenco shoes are used for dancing the tango or flamenco.
Ballroom shoes fall into two categories: Ballroom and Latin American. Both are characterised by suede soles. Men's ballroom shoes are typically lace-ups with one-inch heels and patent leather uppers. Ladies' ballroom shoes are typically court shoes with two-inch heels, made of fabric that can be colored to match the dancer's dress. In contrast to the low Ballroom heel, which evenly distributes weight across the foot, Latin American shoes have higher heels designed to shift weight onto the toes. Latin shoes are also more flexible than ballroom shoes. Men's Latin shoes typically have 1.5- to 2-inch high, shaped heels, while Ladies' Latin shoes have 2,5-inch to 3-inch heels. Ladies shoes are typically open-toed and strapped.
Dance sneakers. Also known as dansneakers, these are a combination of a sneaker and a dance shoe, with a reinforced rubber toe.
Character shoes have a one to three inch heel, which is usually made of leather, and often have one or more straps across the instep to secure it to the foot. They may come in soft-soled (suede) or hard-soled varieties. They may be converted to tap shoes by attaching taps.
Foot thongs are known by various names depending on the manufacturer, including dance paws, foot undies, and foot paws. They are slip-on, partial foot covers that protect the ball of a dancer's foot from skin abrasions while executing turns. From a distance, flesh colored foot thongs give a dancer the appearance of having bare feet.
Tap shoes have metal plates mounted to the bottoms of the toe and heel. The metal plates, which are known as taps, make a loud sound when struck against a hard performance surface. Tap shoes, which are used in tap dancing, may be made from any style of shoe to which taps can be attached.

Pointe shoes	Ballet shoes	Jazz shoes. This style is frequently worn by acro dancers	A foot thong, viewed from the bottom
Ghillies	Ladies' ballroom shoes	Mens' ballroom shoes	Tap shoes

Work

Work shoes are designed to stand heavy wear, to protect the wearer, and provide high traction. They are generally made from sturdy leather uppers and non-leather outsoles. Sometimes they are used for uniforms or comfort by nurses, waitresses, police, military personnel, etc. They are commonly used for protection in industrial settings, construction, mining, and other workplaces. Protective features may include steel-tipped toes and soles or ankle guards.

Historical

Shoes of the past include:

Turn-shoes: a method by which the shoe is constructed inside-out, wetted, and turned — the finished side of the leather flipped to the outside. Such footwear was common from the Middle-ages until modern shoes was developed in the Tudor era. Because of their construction, turn-shoes cannot simply be re-soled, unlike most modern shoe types.
Espadrilles: these sandals, which are still worn today, are found as early as the 14th century.
Patten: a European wooden overshoe used to keep a person's feet dry outdoors. First worn in the middle ages, they continued in use even into the early 20th century. Peoples such as the Dutch, Flemings, and some French carved similar, fully enclosed wooden shoes.
Poulaine: a shoe with a long-pointed toe, popular in Europe in the 15th century.
Moccasins: the historical shoe of many North American Indian tribes.

Maintenance

Breaking-in: some shoes are made of hard but deformable material. After a person wears them multiple times, the material reforms to fit the wearer's feet. The person is said to have broken in the shoes.
Polishing: for protection, water resistance (to some extent) and appearance, especially for leather shoes and boots.
Heel replacement: heels periodically wear out. Not all shoes are designed to enable this.
Sanitization: the inside of shoes can be sanitized with germicidal shoe trees or other cleansing methods to prevent the growth of microorganisms such as odor-causing bacteria or fungi.^[7]
Sole replacement: soles can also wear out. Not all shoes can have their soles replaced.
Shoelace replacement: shoelaces can sometimes be damaged or destroyed necessitating the replacement of the laces.
When unfit for use, shoes can be treated as trash or municipal solid waste and disposed of. The exception can be with most athletic sneakers which can be recycled and turned into other raw materials. See Nike Grind as an example.

Someone who makes or repairs shoes in a shop is called a cobbler.

Biodegradability

Due to the appearance of new man-made materials, shoes have become increasingly less biodegradable. Currently, mass-produced shoes generally require 1000 years to degrade, and/or may not degrade at all, depending on the types of material employed in the production of the shoe. Recently some shoemakers have picked up on the issue and are beginning to produce shoes made entirely from degradable materials, such as Nike Considered.^[8]^[9]

Etiquette

In literature

Shoes play an important role in the fairy tales Cinderella, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and The Red Shoes. In literature and film, an empty shoe or a pair of shoes signifies death.^{[citation needed]}

Sizes

Main article: Shoe size

Units for shoe sizes vary widely around the world. European sizes are measured in Paris Points, which are worth two-thirds of a centimetre. The UK and American units are approximately one-quarter of an inch, starting at 8¼ inches. Men's and women's shoe sizes often have different scales. Shoes size is often measured using a Brannock Device, which can determine both the width and length of the foot.

Companies

See the category shoe companies for a list of shoe companies.

Shoe size

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A shoe size is an alphanumerical indication of the fitting size of a shoe for a person. Often it just consists of a number indicating the length because many shoemakers only provide a standard width for economic reasons.
There are several different shoe-size systems that are used worldwide. These systems differ in what they measure, what unit of measurement they use, and where the size 0 (or 1) is positioned. Only a few systems also take the width of the feet into account. Some regions use different shoe-size systems for different types of shoes (e.g., men's, women's, children's, sport, or safety shoes).

[edit] Deriving the shoe size

[edit] Foot versus shoe and last

The length of a foot is commonly defined as the distance between two parallel lines that are perpendicular to the foot and in contact with the most prominent toe and the most prominent part of the heel. Foot length is measured with the subject standing barefoot and the weight of the body equally distributed on both feet.
The size of the left and right foot is often slightly different. In this case, both feet are measured, and purchasers of mass-produced shoes are advised to purchase a shoe size based upon the larger foot.
Each size of shoe is suitable for a small interval of foot lengths. The inner cavity of a shoe must typically be 15–20 mm longer than the foot, but this relation varies between different types of shoes.
There are three characteristic lengths that a shoe-size system can refer to:

The median length of feet for which a shoe is suitable. For customers, this measure has the advantage of being directly related to their body measures. It applies equally to any type, form, or material of shoe. However, this measure is less popular with manufacturers,^{[citation needed]} because it requires them to test carefully for each new shoe model, for which range of foot sizes it is recommendable. It puts on the manufacturer the burden of ensuring that the shoe will fit a foot of a given length.

The length of the inner cavity of the shoe. This measure has the advantage that it can be measured easily on the finished product. However, it will vary with manufacturing tolerances and provides the customer only very crude information about the range of foot sizes for which the shoe is suitable.

The length of the "last," the foot-shaped template over which the shoe is manufactured. This measure is the easiest one for the manufacturer to use, because it identifies only the tool used to produce the shoe. It makes no promise about manufacturing tolerances or for what size of foot the shoe is actually suitable. It leaves all responsibility and risk of choosing the correct size with the customer. Further, the last can be measured in several different ways resulting in different measurements.^[1]

All these measures differ substantially from one another for the same shoe.

[edit] Length unit

Sizing systems also differ in what units of measurement they use. This also results in different increments between shoe sizes because usually, only "full" or "half" sizes are made.
The following length units are commonly used today to define shoe-size systems:

The Paris point equals to ⅔ centimetres (6.6 mm or ~0.26 in). Usually, only full sizes are made, resulting in an increment of ⅔ centimetre. This unit is commonly used in Continental Europe.
The barleycorn is an old English unit that equals to ⅓ inch (8.46 mm). Half sizes are commonly made, resulting in an increment of ¹⁄₆ inch (4.23 mm). This unit is the base for the English and the U.S. sizing system.
Further, metric measurements in centimetres (cm) or millimetres (mm) are used. The increment is usually 0.5 cm (5 mm or ~0.20 in), which is between the step size of the Parisian and the English system. It is used with the international Mondopoint system and with the Asian system.

Due to the different units of measurements, converting between different sizing systems results in round-off errors as well as unusual sizes such as "10⅔".

[edit] Zero point

The sizing systems also place size 0 (or 1) at different locations:

If size 0 is placed at a foot's length of 0, the shoe size is directly proportional to the length of the foot in the chosen unit of measurement. Sizes of children's, men's, and women's shoes, as well as sizes of different types of shoes, can be compared directly. This is used with the Mondopoint and the Asian system.
However, size 0 can also represent a length of the shoe's inner cavity of 0. The shoe size is then directly proportional to the inner length of the shoe. This is used with systems that also take the measurement from the shoe. While sizes of children's, men's and women's shoes can be compared directly, this is not necessarily true for different types of shoes that require a different amount of "wiggle room." This is used with the Continental European system.
Further, size 0 (or 1) can just be a shoe with a given length, typically the shortest length deemed practical. This can be different for children's, teenagers's, men's, and women's shoes, making it impossible to compare sizes. For example, a women's shoe at size 8 is a different length from a men's shoe at size 8.

[edit] Width designators

Some systems also include the width of a foot. There are different methods indicating the width:

The measured width is indicated in millimetres (mm). This is done with the Mondopoint system.

The measured width is assigned a letter (or combination of letters), which is taken from a table (indexed to length and width) or just assigned on an ad-hoc basis: Examples include (each starting with the narrowest width):

A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE, F, G
4A, 3A, 2A, A, B, C, D, E, 2E, 3E, 4E, 5E, 6E
N (narrow), M (medium) or R (regular), W (wide)

The exact foot width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A-E width indicators used by some US and UK shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are 3/16 of an inch.

[edit] Common sizing systems

[edit] Mondopoint

The International Standard is ISO 9407:1991, "Shoe sizes—Mondopoint system of sizing and marking",^[2] which recommends a shoe-size system known as Mondopoint.
It is based on the mean foot length and width for which the shoe is suitable, measured in millimetres. A shoe size of 280/110 indicates a mean foot length of 280 millimetres (11 in) and width of 110 millimetres (4.3 in).
Because Mondopoint also takes the foot width into account, it allows for better fitting than most other systems. It is, therefore, used by NATO and other military services.
European standard EN 13402, used also for clothes, recommends instead that shoes be labelled with the interval of foot lengths for which they are suitable, measured in centimetres.

[edit] United Kingdom and Ireland

Shoe size in the United Kingdom (British size) is based on the length of the last, measured in barleycorn (approx 1/3 inch) starting from the smallest practical size, which is size zero. It is not formally standardised.
A child's size zero is equivalent to a hand (4 in, 12 barleycorns or 10.16 cm), and the sizes go up to size 13½ (8½ in or 21.59 cm). Thus, the calculation for a child shoe size in the UK is:

$\mbox{child shoe size} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-12$

An adult size one is then the next size up (8⅔ in or 22.01 cm) and each size up continues the progression in barleycorns.^[3] The calculation for an adult shoe size in the UK is thus:

$\mbox{adult shoe size} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-25$

[edit] United States and Canada

In North America, there are different systems that are used concurrently. The size indications are usually similar but not exactly equivalent, especially with athletic shoes at extreme sizes.

[edit] Customary

The traditional system is similar to English sizes but start counting at one rather than zero, so equivalent sizes are one greater. (This is similar to the way that floors in buildings are numbered from one rather from zero (ground) in these regions).
So the calculation for a male shoe size in the USA or Canada is:

$\mbox{male shoe size} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-24$

Women's sizes are almost always determined with the "common" scale, in which women's sizes are equal to men's sizes plus 1.5 (for example, a men's 10.5 is a women's 12). In other words:

$\mbox{female shoe size (common)} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-22.5$

In the less popular scale, known as the "standard" or "FIA" (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women's sizes are men's sizes plus 1 (so a men's 10.5 is a women's 11.5).

$\mbox{female shoe size (FIA)} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-23$

[edit] Children's

Children's sizes are equal to men's sizes plus 12.33. Thus, girls' and boys' sizes do not differ, even though men's and women's do.

$\mbox{child shoe size} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-11.67$

Children's shoe stores in the United States use a sizing scheme which ends at 13, after which it starts at 1 again as adult sizes.

Shoe Size	Inches	Centimeters
5	4 13/16	12
6	5 1/8	13
7	5 1/2	14
8	5 13/16	15
9	6 1/8	15.5
10	6 1/2	16.5
11	6 13/16	17.5
12	7 1/8	18
13	7 1/2	19.1
1	7 13/16	20
2	8 1/8	20.5
3	8 1/2	21.5
4	8 13/16	22.4
5	9 1/8	23
6	9 1/2	24
7	9 13/16	25

[edit] Brannock Device

Drawing of a Brannock Device (from U.S. Patent 1,724,244)

A slightly different sizing method is based on a measurement device designed by shoe seller Charles Brannock. They are now found in many shoe stores. The formula used by the Brannock device assumes a foot length ⅔ inch (1.7 cm) less than the length of the last; thus, men's size 1 is equivalent to a foot's length of 7 ⅔ inches.^[4] Women's sizes are one size up.

$\mbox{male shoe size (Brannock)} = 3\times\mbox{foot length in inches}-22$ ^[5]

$\mbox{female shoe size (Brannock)} = 3\times\mbox{foot length in inches}-21$ ^[5]

The method also measures the length of the distance of the heel and the widest point of the foot. For that purpose, the device has another, shorter scale at the side of the foot. If this scale indicates a larger size, it is taken in place of the foot's length.^[6]
For children's sizes, additional wiggle room is added to allow for growth.^[6]
The device also measures the width of the foot and assigns it designations of AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, or EEE. The widths are 3/16 in apart and differ by shoe length.^[4]

[edit] Athletic shoes

Some makers of athletic shoes, such as Under Armour, Nike, Reebok, or Fila, use an increment of 5 mm instead of half a barleycorn (4.23 mm) As with other systems, women's sizes are one size up.^{[citation needed]}

male shoe size (athletic) = foot length in centimetres - 18

female shoe size (athletic) = foot length in centimetres - 17

There are different sizes for children's and youths' shoes, for example, Nike uses the following:

shoe size (children) = foot length in centimetres - 6

shoe size (youth) = foot length in centimetres - 19

It is obvious that due to the different increments, the sizes can be similar to “normal” US sizes only for medium shoe sizes. For shoes that are larger or smaller, the sizes deviate substantially.

[edit] Australia

^{[citation needed]}

$\mbox{male shoe size} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-22.5$

$\mbox{female shoe size} = 3\times\mbox{last length in inches}-20.5$

[edit] Continental Europe

The Continental European system is used in France, Germany,^[7] Italy, Spain,^[8] and most other continental European countries.
In this system, the shoe size is the length of the last, expressed in Paris points, for both sexes and for adults and children alike. Because a Paris point is ⅔ of a centimetre, the formula is as follows:

$\mathrm{shoe~size ~({Paris~points}) = {\frac{3}{2}}\times{last~length}\left({cm}\right)}$

To compute the size based on actual foot length, one must first add a length of about 1.5 to 2 cm. For instance, for a shoe having an internal length 1.5 cm longer than the foot:

$\mathrm{shoe~size ~({Paris~points})= {\frac{3}{2}}\times{{\left[~foot~length\left({cm}\right)+1.5~{cm}~\right]}}}$

[edit] Asia

The Asian system is based on metric measurements and standardised as JIS S 5037:1998, CNS 4800, S 1093, or KS M 6681. Foot length and girth are taken into account.^[9]
The foot length is indicated in centimetres; an increment of 5 mm is used. This system was also used in the GDR.
The length is followed by designators for girth (A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE, F, G), which is taken from a table indexed to girth and length. There are different tables for men's, women's, and children's (less than 12 years of age) shoes. The tables also include the width as supplemental indications. Not all designators are used for all genders and in all countries. For example, the largest girth for women in China is EEEE, whereas in Japan, it is F.
In Japan, one maker also adds an indication for the foot width: N (narrow), M (medium), and W (wide).^[10]

[edit] Shoe size comparison

Please, note that the following tables indicate theoretical sizes calculated from the standards and information given above. Differences between these tables and makers' tables or other tables found on the Web are usually due to the following factors:

The systems are not fully standardised. Differences between shoes from different makers, which are due to different methods of measuring the shoes, different manufacturing processes, or different allowances^[1] are sometimes related to different countries. A “German” size may then differ from a “French” size, although both countries use the Continental European system.
Different widths may have the result that for wide feet, a shoe multiple sizes larger (and actually too long) may be required. This may also result in different size indications, especially if different typical widths are attributed to different sizing systems or countries.
Some tables for children take future growth into account. The shoe size is then larger than what would correspond to the actual length of the foot.^[6]
A indication in centimetres or inches can mean the length of the foot or the length of the shoe's inner cavity. This relation is not constant but varies due to different amounts of wiggle room required for different sizes of shoes.
There are several U.S. systems, which differ substantially for sizes far above or below medium sizes.

Further, some tables available on the Web simply contain errors. For example, the wiggle room or different zero point is not taken into account, or tables based on different U.S. systems (traditional and athletic) are simply combined although they are incompatible.

[edit] Children

Example: A child's foot that is 185 millimetres (7.3 in) long requires a shoe that is about 15 millimetres (0.59 in) longer. The inner length of 200 millimetres (7.9 in) is EU shoe size 29 or UK size 11.

[edit] Adults

[edit] Notes

^ ^a ^b Andersson, Bendt. "Recommendations to suppliers and manufacturers of orthopedic footwear concerning sizes of shoes and lasts" (PDF). http://www.hi.se/Global/pdf/2004/04319-pdf.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-06. (Swedish)
^ International Standard ISO 9407:1991, Shoe sizes — Mondopoint system of sizing and marking
^ Cairns, Warwick. About the Size of It. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-01628-6.
^ ^a ^b Brannock Device Co. "History". http://brannock.com/cgi-bin/start.cgi/brannock/history.html. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ ^a ^b Brannock Device Co. "Size Conversion Chart". http://brannock.com/cgi-bin/htmlos.cgi/002916.1.481015045600010383. Retrieved 2010-04-20.
^ ^a ^b ^c Brannock Device Co. "Instructions". http://brannock.com/cgi-bin/start.cgi/brannock/instructions.html. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ German Standard DIN 66074:1975, Shoe sizes
^ Spanish Standard UNE 59850:1998, Shoes: Size designation
^ (Japanese) Rakuten.co.jp
^ Ginza-yoshinoya.co.jp

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

International Shoe Size Conversion, shoesizeconversion.net
Increased hallux angle in children and its association with insufficient length of footwear, biomedcentral.com
A Study on the parameters of the feet of adolescent boyPDF (122 KB), cueronet.com
International Shoe Size Converter and Calculator

This article incorporates information from the German Wikipedia.

Kamis, 04 November 2010

Horseshoe

Horseshoe

Contents

[edit] History

Reasons for use of horseshoes

Environmental changes linked to domestication

Physical stresses requiring horseshoes

[edit] Horseshoeing theories and debates

Process of shoeing

Shoeing mistakes

Senin, 25 Oktober 2010

Shoe

Contents

History

Parts

Sole

Insole

Outsole

Midsole

Heel

Vamp/upper

Lateral/medial

Accessories

Types

Dress and casual

Men's

Women's

Unisex

Athletic

Orthopedic

Dance

Work

Historical

Maintenance

Biodegradability

Etiquette

In literature

Sizes

Companies

Shoe size

Contents

[edit] Deriving the shoe size

[edit] Foot versus shoe and last

[edit] Length unit

[edit] Zero point

[edit] Width designators

[edit] Common sizing systems

[edit] Mondopoint

[edit] United Kingdom and Ireland

[edit] United States and Canada

[edit] Customary

[edit] Children's

[edit] Brannock Device

[edit] Athletic shoes

[edit] Australia

[edit] Continental Europe

[edit] Asia

[edit] Shoe size comparison

[edit] Children

[edit] Adults

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

[edit] External links